Political jargon, explained like you're a normal person.
A special process that lets the Senate pass budget-related bills with just 51 votes.
Budget reconciliation is a legislative shortcut that bypasses the filibuster. It lets the Senate pass certain spending, revenue, and debt limit bills with a simple majority (51 votes) instead of the usual 60 needed to overcome a filibuster. It's limited to budget-related provisions and can only be used a few times per year. Major legislation like the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act and the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act were passed this way.
A proposed law or policy that voters decide directly — yes or no — instead of electing a person.
A ballot measure is a question put to voters on election day. It can be a new law, a constitutional amendment, a bond issue, or a repeal of an existing law. Measures appear as 'Proposition,' 'Measure,' 'Amendment,' or 'Question' depending on the state. They can be placed on the ballot by the state legislature (legislative referral) or by citizens who collect enough petition signatures (citizen initiative). Only 26 states allow citizen initiatives; all 50 allow legislative referrals.
A ballot measure that lets the government borrow money for specific projects like schools or roads.
A bond measure asks voters to approve government borrowing for a specific purpose — building schools, fixing roads, expanding parks, or upgrading water systems. If approved, the government issues bonds (essentially IOUs to investors) and repays them over time, usually through property taxes or other revenue. Bond measures typically include an estimated tax impact so voters know what it will cost them.
A group of lawmakers who share an interest or identity.
A caucus is an informal group of members of Congress who come together around a shared interest, identity, or goal. Examples include the Congressional Black Caucus, the Freedom Caucus (conservative Republicans), or the Progressive Caucus (liberal Democrats). Caucuses can influence legislation and party strategy.
One of 3 groups of senators. Each class is up for election every 6 years.
The 100 Senate seats are divided into 3 classes (Class I, II, and III) of roughly 33 senators each. Every 2 years, one class is up for election. This means the entire Senate is never replaced at once — it's designed to provide stability. In 2026, Class II is up for election.
A Senate vote to end debate and move to a final vote. Requires 60 votes.
Cloture is the only way to end a filibuster in the Senate. Under Senate Rule XXII, 60 out of 100 senators must vote to invoke cloture. Once cloture is invoked, debate is limited to 30 additional hours before a final vote. This is why people say you need '60 votes to pass' a bill in the Senate — technically you only need 51 to pass it, but you need 60 to end debate and actually get to that vote.
In Congress, a smaller group of lawmakers that reviews bills. In elections, an organized group that raises or spends money on behalf of a candidate or cause.
"Committee" means different things depending on context. In Congress, committees are groups of senators or representatives who specialize in areas like defense, taxes, or the judiciary. The committee chair (always from the majority party) decides which bills get hearings and which are ignored — most bills die in committee. In campaign finance, a "committee" is any organization registered with the FEC to raise or spend money in elections. A candidate's campaign committee receives donations on their behalf. A political action committee (PAC) pools contributions from individuals. An "independent expenditure-only committee" is the official name for a super PAC.
A temporary group that resolves differences when the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill.
When the House and Senate pass different versions of the same bill, a conference committee is formed to work out a compromise. It includes members from both chambers. Once they agree on a final version, both the House and Senate must vote on the identical text before it goes to the president. If they can't agree, the bill can die here.
A charge Congress can bring against someone who defies a subpoena or obstructs an investigation.
Contempt of Congress is a formal charge that a committee or the full House/Senate can bring against anyone who refuses to comply with a congressional subpoena — whether for testimony or documents. It can be referred to the Department of Justice for criminal prosecution (carrying up to a year in jail and fines) or enforced through civil lawsuits. In 2026, a bipartisan vote to hold Bill and Hillary Clinton in contempt for defying Epstein investigation subpoenas led to their compliance, setting a new precedent for compelling former presidents to testify.
A process that lets ordinary voters propose a new law by collecting petition signatures.
A citizen initiative (also called a ballot initiative) lets voters bypass the legislature and put a proposed law or constitutional amendment directly on the ballot. Sponsors draft the proposal, file it with election officials, get it approved for signature gathering, then collect enough valid signatures from registered voters to qualify. The signature threshold varies by state — typically 5–10% of votes cast in the last governor's race. Only 26 states allow citizen initiatives.
A Senate hearing to question a president's nominee for a federal position.
When the president nominates someone for a Cabinet position, federal judgeship, or other senior role, the Senate holds a confirmation hearing. The relevant committee questions the nominee about their qualifications, views, and potential conflicts of interest. The committee then votes on whether to recommend the nominee to the full Senate. Under the Constitution's 'advise and consent' clause, the Senate has the power to reject nominees — and has done so many times throughout history, most notably Robert Bork's Supreme Court nomination in 1987.
The Congressional Budget Office's estimate of how much a bill will cost.
A CBO score is the Congressional Budget Office's official cost estimate for a piece of legislation. Before major bills move forward, lawmakers request a CBO score to understand how much the bill would cost taxpayers and how it would affect the federal deficit. CBO is nonpartisan and independent — its estimates can make or break legislation. A bill that 'scores' higher than expected often faces political trouble, because lawmakers have to explain why it's worth the cost.
A machine that spins uranium gas at high speed to separate isotopes for enrichment.
In nuclear technology, a centrifuge is a cylindrical device that spins uranium hexafluoride gas at extremely high speeds. The heavier uranium-238 isotopes move outward while the lighter uranium-235 isotopes concentrate toward the center, gradually increasing the U-235 percentage. Thousands of centrifuges are linked together in 'cascades' to achieve the desired enrichment level. More advanced centrifuge designs enrich faster and more efficiently — which is why Iran's shift to newer centrifuge models after the JCPOA collapsed alarmed international observers.
Technology that has both civilian and military applications.
Dual-use technology refers to items or knowledge that can serve both peaceful civilian purposes and military or weapons applications. Examples include advanced computer chips, encryption software, certain chemicals, and nuclear technology. The U.S. government regulates the export of dual-use items through the Bureau of Industry and Security and the Export Administration Regulations. Exporting controlled dual-use technology to sanctioned countries can be a serious federal crime.
A legal argument the executive branch uses to withhold internal discussions from Congress.
Deliberative process privilege is a legal doctrine that protects internal executive branch discussions — emails, memos, and drafts — from being disclosed to Congress or the public. The idea is that officials need to be able to debate ideas freely without fear that every brainstorm will be made public. However, Congress often pushes back on this privilege during oversight investigations, arguing it can be used to hide wrongdoing rather than protect genuine deliberation. Courts have sometimes forced disclosure when the oversight need outweighs the privilege.
An international deal made by the president without Senate ratification — easier to make and easier to undo.
An executive agreement is a pact between the president and a foreign government that does not require the two-thirds Senate vote needed for a formal treaty. Presidents use executive agreements far more often than treaties — roughly 90% of international agreements since World War II have been executive agreements. The key trade-off: they're faster to negotiate and don't require 67 Senate votes, but the next president can withdraw from them unilaterally. The Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA) was an executive agreement, which is why Trump was able to pull out of it without congressional approval.
A tactic to block a bill by extending debate indefinitely in the Senate.
A filibuster is when a senator (or group of senators) blocks a bill from coming to a final vote by refusing to end debate. The Senate allows unlimited debate unless 60 senators vote for cloture. In practice, the modern filibuster is mostly procedural — a senator signals they'll filibuster, and the majority leader knows they lack 60 votes, so the bill never comes to a vote. The House has no filibuster.
When a seat changes from one party to the other.
A 'flip' happens when a seat that was held by one party is won by the other party. For example, if a Republican-held Senate seat is won by a Democrat, that seat has 'flipped.' Flips are what change the balance of power in Congress.
Drawing district lines to give one party an unfair advantage.
Gerrymandering is when the boundaries of a congressional district are drawn in a way that favors one political party. State legislatures typically draw these lines, and the party in power often draws them to benefit themselves. This can make some House races less competitive because the district was designed to favor one party.
The Government Accountability Office — Congress's independent investigative arm.
The GAO (Government Accountability Office) is a nonpartisan agency that works for Congress. Often called the 'congressional watchdog,' it audits federal spending, investigates how agencies operate, and evaluates whether government programs are working. Any committee chair or ranking member can request a GAO investigation. GAO reports are highly respected because of the agency's independence and rigor. When you hear that 'a government study found' something about federal spending, it's often a GAO report.
The person currently holding the office.
The incumbent is the person who currently holds the seat. They're already in office and are running to keep their job. Incumbents usually have a big advantage because voters already know their name and they have access to more campaign resources. Historically, over 90% of incumbents win re-election.
When the president tries to withhold or redirect money that Congress already approved.
Impoundment is when the president refuses to spend money that Congress has appropriated. After President Nixon repeatedly impounded funds in the early 1970s, Congress passed the Impoundment Control Act of 1974, which says the president must spend money the way Congress directs. The president can request a rescission (asking Congress to cancel the spending), but cannot unilaterally redirect or withhold funds without Congressional approval.
To formally charge someone with a crime, usually through a grand jury.
To indict someone means to formally accuse them of a crime. In the federal system, this is done by a grand jury — a group of citizens who review evidence presented by a prosecutor and decide whether there's enough to bring charges. An indictment is not a conviction; it's the starting point of a criminal case. The question of whether a sitting president can be indicted has been debated for decades — longstanding DOJ policy says no, but the Constitution doesn't address it directly.
The process of formally charging a federal official with 'high crimes and misdemeanors.'
Impeachment is the Constitution's process for removing federal officials — including the president, vice president, Cabinet members, and federal judges — for 'high crimes and misdemeanors.' The House of Representatives votes to impeach (bring charges), and the Senate holds the trial. A two-thirds Senate vote is required to convict and remove from office. Three presidents have been impeached (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, Donald Trump — twice), but none has been convicted by the Senate. The House has also impeached one Cabinet member and multiple federal judges.
The International Atomic Energy Agency — the UN's nuclear watchdog.
The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) is an independent international organization that works with the United Nations to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and prevent its use for military purposes. IAEA inspectors monitor nuclear facilities around the world, verify that countries are complying with the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and report on any suspicious activity. Their access to Iran's nuclear sites — and the limits on that access — has been central to the Iran nuclear debate.
The power of federal courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.
Judicial review is the power of federal courts — most importantly the Supreme Court — to strike down laws passed by Congress or actions taken by the president if they violate the Constitution. This power isn't explicitly written in the Constitution; it was established by the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803. It's one of the most important checks in the entire system, giving the judicial branch the final say on what the Constitution means.
Slightly favors one party, but still competitive.
'Lean R' means the race slightly favors the Republican candidate, and 'Lean D' means it slightly favors the Democrat. These races aren't locked up — upsets happen. The other ratings in order are: Safe > Likely > Lean > Toss-up. 'Safe R' means the Republican is almost certain to win.
One party is favored, but an upset is possible under the right conditions.
'Likely R' means the Republican is expected to win, and 'Likely D' means the Democrat is expected to win. These races lean more heavily toward one party than 'Lean' races, but they're not locked up — a wave election, scandal, or strong challenger could change the outcome. The full rating scale from most to least competitive: Toss-up > Lean > Likely > Safe.
A ballot measure placed by the state legislature for voters to approve or reject.
A legislative referral is when the state legislature votes to put a question on the ballot for voters to decide. Unlike citizen initiatives, no petition signatures are needed — the legislature refers the measure directly. All 50 states allow legislative referrals. Constitutional amendments often require this path: the legislature proposes the change and voters ratify it.
The party that controls more than half the seats.
The majority party has more than half the seats in a chamber. In the Senate, that's 51 out of 100. In the House, it's 218 out of 435. The majority party controls which bills come to a vote, who chairs committees, and largely sets the agenda. The Majority Leader (Senate) or Speaker (House) is the most powerful person in that chamber.
Elections held halfway through a president's 4-year term.
Midterm elections happen 2 years after a presidential election — in the middle of the president's term. All 435 House seats and about one-third of Senate seats are up for election. Midterms historically have lower voter turnout than presidential elections, but they're just as important for determining which party controls Congress.
The committee process of debating, amending, and finalizing a bill's text.
Markup is the stage where a congressional committee goes through a bill line by line, debating its provisions and voting on proposed changes (amendments). It's where the real legislative sausage-making happens. A bill that enters markup can come out significantly different from the version that was introduced. Markup sessions are usually public, and they're where you see the most detailed policy debates in Congress. A bill must pass committee markup before it can go to the full House or Senate floor for a vote.
A race or office where candidates don't run under a party label.
Nonpartisan races don't list candidates' political party affiliations on the ballot. Many local offices — school board, judges, city council, water district — are nonpartisan by design, reflecting the idea that these roles should be about competence rather than party politics. This means you can't rely on party labels to guide your vote; you'll need to research the candidates independently through voter guides, local news, or candidate websites.
Efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to countries that don't already have them.
Non-proliferation refers to the international effort to stop nuclear weapons from spreading to additional countries. The cornerstone of this effort is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signed in 1968, which commits non-nuclear states to forgo weapons development in exchange for access to peaceful nuclear technology and a promise from nuclear states to work toward disarmament. The non-proliferation framework also includes export controls, IAEA inspections, and sanctions against violators.
No incumbent is running. The seat is up for grabs.
An open seat is a race where the current officeholder is not running for re-election — they're retiring, running for a different office, or left for another reason. Open seats tend to be more competitive because neither candidate has the advantage of already being in office.
Marking too many candidates in one race, which invalidates that race on your ballot.
Overvoting means you selected more candidates than allowed in a single race — for example, marking two candidates in a 'vote for one' race. When this happens, that specific race won't be counted, but all your other selections on the ballot remain valid. Modern optical scanners and ballot-marking devices will usually warn you before your ballot is finalized, giving you a chance to fix the mistake.
Congress's power to investigate and monitor the executive branch.
Congressional oversight is the process by which Congress monitors and investigates the executive branch — federal agencies, departments, and officials. While the word 'oversight' isn't in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has ruled that Congress needs this power to write effective laws. Oversight takes many forms: hearings, document requests, subpoenas, and investigations. It's one of Congress's most important checks on presidential power. The Church Committee's investigation of intelligence abuses (1975) and the Watergate hearings (1973) are landmark examples.
An organization that collects donations and gives them to candidates.
A Political Action Committee (PAC) pools contributions from its members — employees of a company, members of a union, or people in an industry — and donates that money to candidates. Regular PACs are limited to giving $5,000 per candidate per election. They're different from Super PACs, which can spend unlimited amounts but can't give directly to candidates.
A past action or decision that establishes expectations for the future.
Precedent is a past action or decision that sets the standard for how similar situations are handled going forward. In courts, legal precedent (stare decisis) means lower courts must follow higher court rulings. In politics, precedent is softer — it's based on norms and expectations, not binding rules. For example, presidents releasing their tax returns was a political precedent (not a law) that held from Nixon until Trump broke it. Constitutional precedent falls in between — when a branch of government exercises a new power (like Congress compelling a former president to testify), it becomes the new baseline even if no court ruled on it.
An election within a party to choose their candidate for the general election.
Before the general election in November, each party holds a primary election where voters choose which candidate will represent that party. For example, if 3 Republicans are running for a Senate seat, the primary narrows it down to 1 Republican who then faces the Democrat (and any independents) in November.
A backup ballot you can cast if there's a problem verifying your eligibility at the polls.
A provisional ballot is a federal right under the Help America Vote Act of 2002. If you show up to vote and there's an issue — your name isn't on the rolls, there's a question about your ID, or you moved recently — you can still cast a provisional ballot. It's set aside and counted later, after election officials verify your eligibility. You'll receive a receipt so you can check whether your ballot was counted.
Lying under oath — a federal crime.
Perjury is the crime of intentionally making a false statement while under oath. When witnesses testify before Congress, they're typically sworn in first. If they lie, they can be charged with perjury, which carries penalties of up to five years in prison. Congress itself can't prosecute perjury — it must refer the case to the Department of Justice. Notable perjury cases include President Clinton's testimony about Monica Lewinsky and baseball player Roger Clemens's testimony about steroid use.
A recorded vote where each member's name and vote are published.
A roll call vote (also called a recorded vote) is when each member of Congress casts an individual vote that is publicly recorded. In the House, members vote electronically. In the Senate, the clerk reads each senator's name and they respond. Roll call votes are the ones that show up in voting records and can be used to hold lawmakers accountable.
A second election held when no candidate wins enough votes in the first round.
A runoff election happens when no candidate reaches the required percentage of votes (usually 50%) to win outright. The top two finishers face off in a second election weeks later. States like Georgia and Louisiana use runoff systems. Runoffs can delay final results and sometimes change the outcome since turnout is usually lower the second time around.
A request from the president to cancel spending that Congress already approved.
A rescission is when the president formally asks Congress to take back (cancel) money it already approved for a specific purpose. Under the Impoundment Control Act of 1974, Congress has 45 days to vote on the request. If Congress votes no or doesn't act, the money must be spent as originally planned. The Rescissions Act of 2025 (H.R. 4) used this process to cancel $9.4 billion in foreign aid and public broadcasting funding.
A voting method where you rank candidates in order of preference instead of picking just one.
Ranked choice voting (RCV) lets voters rank candidates from first choice to last. If no candidate gets more than 50% of first-choice votes, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and their voters' second choices are redistributed. This continues until someone reaches a majority. Alaska and Maine use RCV for federal races, and a growing number of cities use it for local elections. Supporters say it reduces negative campaigning and eliminates the 'spoiler effect.'
When an official steps aside from a case or decision because of a conflict of interest.
Recusal is the act of removing yourself from a decision or investigation because you have a personal or professional conflict of interest. For example, an Attorney General might recuse from an investigation involving the president who appointed them. Judges recuse from cases involving people they know or companies they hold stock in. Recusal is meant to preserve the appearance of impartiality — the idea that no one should be a judge in their own case.
One party is almost certain to win. The race isn't competitive.
'Safe R' means the Republican is almost certain to win, and 'Safe D' means the Democrat is almost certain to win. These seats are so strongly held by one party that the other party usually doesn't invest serious resources in challenging them. The full rating scale from most to least competitive: Toss-up > Lean > Likely > Safe.
The principle of dividing government into three branches so no one has all the power.
Separation of powers is the constitutional principle of splitting the federal government into three co-equal branches: legislative (Congress), executive (the President), and judicial (the Supreme Court and federal courts). Each branch has its own powers and responsibilities, and each can check the others. The idea comes from Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu and was built into the Constitution to prevent tyranny.
An election held to fill a seat that was vacated early.
A special election happens when a senator or representative leaves office before their term is up — maybe they resigned, died, or took another government job. The state then holds a special election to fill the empty seat. In 2026, Ohio and Florida have special elections because JD Vance became Vice President and Marco Rubio became Secretary of State.
The FEC form that officially makes someone a federal candidate.
FEC Form 2 — the Statement of Candidacy — must be filed within 15 days of a candidate raising or spending more than $5,000 for their campaign. Once filed, the candidate's financial activity becomes public record and they must file regular disclosure reports with the Federal Election Commission.
A legal order requiring someone to testify or produce documents.
A subpoena (from Latin 'under penalty') is a legally binding order to appear before a court or congressional committee to testify or provide documents. In Congress, committees can issue subpoenas as part of their oversight and investigative powers. Ignoring a congressional subpoena can lead to contempt of Congress charges. In 2022, Trump defied a January 6th Committee subpoena and the committee dissolved before enforcing it. In 2026, the Clintons initially defied subpoenas from the House Oversight Committee's Epstein investigation, but complied after a bipartisan contempt vote.
An organization that can spend unlimited money on elections but can't coordinate with candidates.
A Super PAC (officially an 'independent expenditure-only political action committee') can raise and spend unlimited money to support or oppose candidates, but cannot donate directly to campaigns or coordinate spending with a candidate. They were made possible by the 2010 Citizens United Supreme Court decision. Super PACs must disclose their donors to the FEC.
The highest court in the U.S., with 9 justices who serve lifetime appointments.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the judicial branch of the U.S. government. It has 9 justices — one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices — who serve lifetime appointments ('during good Behaviour,' per the Constitution). Justices are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Court's most important power is judicial review: the ability to strike down laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution. Landmark decisions like Brown v. Board of Education, Roe v. Wade, and Citizens United have shaped American life.
Penalties — usually economic — that one country imposes on another to pressure a change in behavior.
Sanctions are restrictions that governments impose on other countries, organizations, or individuals to punish or pressure them. Economic sanctions can include freezing assets, banning trade, cutting off access to the banking system, or prohibiting investment. The U.S. uses sanctions extensively as a foreign policy tool — administered by the Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC). Sanctions against Iran, for example, targeted its oil exports and banking system to pressure negotiations over its nuclear program. Sanctions can be imposed by the president through executive order or by Congress through legislation.
A race that could go either way. Neither party has a clear advantage.
A toss-up is a race where polls and analysts think either candidate has roughly an equal chance of winning. These are the most closely watched races because they're the ones most likely to determine which party controls Congress. Think of it like a coin flip.
Leaving a race blank on your ballot. It's legal and your other votes still count.
Undervoting means you chose fewer candidates than allowed in a race — or skipped it entirely. It's completely legal. If a race says 'vote for up to 3' and you only pick one, that's an undervote. If you leave a race blank, that's also an undervote. Your selections in every other race still count normally. It's better to skip a race you haven't researched than to pick randomly.
The process of increasing the concentration of uranium-235, used for nuclear energy or weapons.
Uranium enrichment is the process of increasing the percentage of uranium-235 (U-235) in natural uranium. Natural uranium is about 0.7% U-235. For nuclear power plants, it needs to be enriched to 3–5%. For a nuclear weapon, it must reach roughly 90% (called 'weapons-grade' or 'highly enriched uranium'). The same technology — spinning uranium gas in centrifuges — is used for both purposes, which is why enrichment programs raise proliferation concerns. The key question with any country's program is: how far are they enriching, and how many centrifuges do they have?
The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress.
When the president vetoes a bill, it doesn't become law — unless Congress overrides the veto with a two-thirds vote in both the House (290 votes) and the Senate (67 votes). Overrides are rare because that's a very high bar. The president can also do nothing: if they don't sign or veto within 10 days, the bill becomes law automatically — unless Congress adjourns during that window, which results in a 'pocket veto.'
A process that lets voters approve or reject a law the legislature already passed.
A veto referendum (also called a popular referendum) allows voters to challenge a law that the state legislature has already passed. Citizens collect petition signatures to put the law on the ballot, and voters then decide whether to keep it or repeal it. It's essentially a 'people's veto' — a direct check on the legislature. About half of U.S. states allow veto referendums.
A person who reports wrongdoing inside an organization, often with legal protections.
A whistleblower is someone — usually a government employee or contractor — who reports waste, fraud, abuse, or illegal activity within their organization. Federal law protects whistleblowers from retaliation like firing, demotion, or harassment. The Whistleblower Protection Act and various inspector general statutes give these individuals legal channels to report problems. Many major congressional investigations have been triggered by whistleblower complaints, including the scandal that led to President Nixon's resignation.
A 1973 law that limits the president's ability to deploy military forces without congressional approval.
The War Powers Resolution of 1973 was passed over President Nixon's veto after the Vietnam War. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying military forces and limits deployments to 60 days (plus a 30-day withdrawal period) without congressional authorization. In practice, presidents of both parties have argued the War Powers Act is unconstitutional and have often deployed forces without fully complying. Congress has used War Powers votes to debate military action against Iran, Yemen, and other conflicts — even when those votes are largely symbolic.